* Glossary
acculturation The process whereby one culture borrows
elements from another. Often what has been adopted
overshadows the original, as when immigrants become
acculturated in their new home.
agreste An intermediate zone between northeastern Brazil's
humid, fertile coastal zone (zona da mata) and the drought-
ridden sertao of the interior.
agribusiness A farm operating on a large scale -- highly
mechanized, extensively automated, and closely integrated
with supplies and markets.
altitudinal zonation Variation in natural environmental
features, especially vegetation, as well as primary
production activities and living conditions, upward along a
mountain slope. The gradual drop in temperature and
pressure is critical to most of these variations.
bandeirantes Bands of slavers and prospectors penetrating the
Brazilian interior from coastal points of departure during
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. By-products of
this "pathfinding" included new geographical information.
Boreal forest The coniferous, northernmost forest in North
America -- a massive vegetation region that grades over
into tundra.
Canadian Shield The broad, roughly arcuate zone of heavily
glaciated and otherwise eroded old (i.e., Precambian) rocks
surrounding Hudson Bay and dipping below the Canadian-U.S.
border around Lake Superior and in upstate New York. It is
generally inhospitable to agriculture, sparsely settled,
and economically exploited only when minerals or
hydroelectricity or recreational amenities attract.
cell (weather) A portion of the atmosphere that behaves as a
unit.
Central Business District (CBD) The heavily built-up core of
a city -- a concentration of company headquarters,
financial institutions, specialized trading facilities,
and governmental offices, plus all the services that keep
such a nucleus functioning smoothly.
chernozem Dark, often black, soil developing under and
sustaining a natural grassland vegetation; excellent for
cultivation of cereals. The name originated in Russia,
where this soil type is extensive and was first studied.
chinook Warming, drying winds that sweep down the eastern
slopes of the Rockies in early spring.
circum-Pacific zone Zone of earthquakes and volcanic activity
stretching virtually around the Pacific, coinciding with
the Cordillera of western North and Latin America.
concentric zonation A pattern of urban functions (ceremonial,
residential, commercial, etc.) detected within prehistoric
Indian cities, as well as the subsequent Spanish cities and
even some modern cities.
conquistadores Spanish conquerors in the New World of the
sixteenth century, especially Hernan Cortes, Francisco
Pizarro, Pedro Alvarado.
continental climate A type of climate prevailing in the
interior of northern hemisphere continents, characterized
mainly by seasonal extremes of temperature, which develop
more strongly over land than water.
Cordillera The virtually continuous western mountain system
of the Americas. See Figures 3.3 and 7.3.
cortico A tenement house, often a subdivided mansion out of
the past, common in the central-city slums of Sao Paulo.
culture A group's lifeway, its designs for living. It is made
up of some basic myths from which spring values, i.e.,
formulations of what is good and what is bad. It involves
certain attitudes, such as a conservational attitude toward
natural resources. It is embodied in language. maintained
and elaborated in communication. Artifacts express it,
serve it, or symbolize it.
culture contact The meeting of representatives of various
cultures. It usually involves some exchange and frequently trauma as
well, since elements of one culture may undercut those of another,
as in religious matters.
culture hearth An area where major prehistoric
innovation and exchange originate. In the Americas there
are only two: Middle America and the central Andes.
demographic transition A change in the bases of growth of
human populations; often shown as an S curve on a graph. It
begins with low growth rates due to high death rates that
cancel out high birth rates, and ends with low growth rates
due to low birth and low death rates.
demography The statistical study of population.
deposition The process by which sediments being carried by
wind, water, or ice are dropped, to form corresponding
landforms, such as dunes, deltas, or moraines.
diffusion The process by which material items or ideas enter
a new area and spread within it. It's rather like the
absorption of a drop of ink by a blotter.
dry farming A type of farming practised on some of the drier
western margins of North America's Great Plains,
distinguished by various techniques for the preservation of
moisture in the soil and the prevention of wind erosion.
dust bowl That western portion of the Great Plains where
land better suited to grazing was put to the plow during
and after World War I. In 1934 soil misuse plus drought and
winds combined to produce heavy wind erosion: the dust
storms or "black blizzards."
ejido (ejidatario) A Mexican landholding type that was
developed as a part of Mexico's land reform, a process that
got under way before 1920. It is a group holding; the
individual members of an ejido, called ejidatarios, have
the right to use a parcel of land but not to sell, rent, or
mortgage it. The land they hold probably came from a large
private property of pre-reform days that was redistributed.
(More amply discussed in the text.
encomienda A right to exploit a given number of villages of
Indians in a specified area, conferred by the Spanish crown
to deserving participants in the conquest. It was
considered a temporary means of reward; it was to last for
one generation. In fact, encomiendas were often extended to
several generations. The institution as a whole was not
finally phased out until the last half of the eighteenth
century.
Enlightenment A philosophic movement of the eighteenth
century. Its adherents questioned traditional religious
doctrines and values, advocated the pursuit of facts by
means of the scientific method, and thought universal human
progress to be possible.
entrada An entry, literally speaking, but also an expedition
into the interior, particularly as made during the early
phases of conquest and colonization in both Spanish and
Portuguese America.
entrepreneurial capitalism Business activity undertaken by
venturesome individuals for private gain. An entrepreneur is
one who organizes, manages, and takes the risk of an
enterprise.
erosion The removal of particles by wind, water, or ice; a
process of wearing down.
estancia (estanciero) A large private property devoted to
cattle ranching, particularly as in Argentina. The owner is
called an estanciero.
ethnicity A complex of clearly distinguishable cultural
traits that can be conveniently labeled, usually with the
name of the country or area of origin. The term is most
often used with respect to groups of European origin:
Ukrainians, Tyroleans, Greeks, etc.
ethnographer A specialist in the meticulous description of
the characteristics of a culture. The information compiled
may become the building material for anthropological theory.
fall line The line of rapids or falls created when streams
flowing in the same direction over an area underlain by
resistant rock cross into an area underlain by softer, more
easily eroded rock. This is a particularly striking
phenomenon on the eastern seaboard of the U.S.A., along the
eastern boundary of the Appalachian mountain system, where it
meets the coastal plain.
fallow A period within the cycle of shifting cultivation, or
indeed other types of agriculture too, during which a
given piece of land is left unused.
favela A low-quality residential area in a large Brazilian
city. The word is usually considered synonymous with slum,
but that has unfortunately become so imprecise a word as to
be virtually useless.
fazenda A large private property in rural Brazil, similar to
the hacienda of Spanish America and usually devoted, at
least in part, to cattle ranching.
fjord, fjorded coastline A deep, narrow inlet
attributable to glaciation; a coastline characterized by
many such inlets.
flagelado "The whipped one" in Portuguese; i.e., a person
suffering hardship, as the drought victims of the Northeast
of Brazil.
frontier The forward edge of settlement, the boundary between
the settled and the unsettled; often used as synonym for a
political boundary.
fundo A large private property. The term is commonly used in
Chile.
gallery forest A forest fringe along a river or other water
body. Beyond it is usually grassland.
gaucho The traditional, "freelancing" cowboy of the
Argentinian Pampa. He was not usually a steady hired hand
on any one ranch. The word is often generalized now to
include almost anyone working with cattle in Argentina.
glaciation The advance of glaciers over a particular piece of
terrain and the eventual melting of the ice. The passage of
ice may accomplish erosion, such as the wearing away of
bedrock, and also leave behind materials that were embedded
in the ice. See Pleistocene.
Great Plains A major landform region of North America, mapped
and characterized in various ways on Figures 4.3, 4.4, and
4.5.
green revolution A considerable increase in food production
in various countries of the developing or "third" world as a
result of the introduction of new crop strains, the
application of chemical fertilizers, and other technical
advances. These hopeful developments became noticeable in
the late 1960s; they have since been jeopardized by the
rising cost of fuel and other factors.
grid system A quadrate system of land division, as in an
early Spanish American city or on the farmlands of the
Great Plains. Rectangles and squares dominate such a
landscape when seen from the air.
guano The droppings of sea birds, especially on the islands
and headlands of the Peruvian and Chilean coast. This is
excellent fertilizer and has long been "harvested" for that
purpose.
habitant Early French Canadian settler or farmer.
hacienda The Spanish American term commonly used to designate
a traditional large private property.
hectare A metric unit of land measurement, equaling about two
and a half acres.
hinterland The area served by the various functions of a
city; also the area from which the city obtains what it
needs for its subsistence and industry.
horizon As used by archaeologists, a distinguishable level of
cultural development, usually evident as an actual line or
band across the wall of a pit dug into a once-occupied
site.
in-migrants Those migrants moving into a place. It is a term
ordinarily used with respect to migration into cities or
regions from neighboring areas. Transoceanic movement into
a country, on the other hand, is commonly termed immigration.
inquilinos Workers on large private estates in Chile
(fundos).
intermontane Between major mountain ranges, as between the
Sierra Madre Oriental and the Sierra Madre Occidental of
Mexico.
latifundio (latifundismo) General term for the large landed
estate. Latifundismo is the word often used for this
system of landholding together with its associated
activities and living conditions -- an oppressive residue of
the colonial past.
Ioess Wind-transported silt (a very fine material) deposited
over a long period of time. It is often many meters in
thickness.
Longhorn The breed of cattle with which ranching was begun in
North America. The result of crossbreeding in the Iberian
Peninsula, these animals came in various colors and shapes,
but they usually carried a pair of long horns.
Mediterranean climate The climatic type that takes its name
from the area in which it is most extensive. It is
characterized by hot dry summers and mild rainy winters.
Megalopolis The name often given to the virtually continuous
urban belt stretching along the eastern seaboard of the
United States from Boston to Washington.
mercantilism An economic system developed in Europe before
the conquest of the Americas, involving governmental control
of an entire national economy in aid of development and the
accumulation of wealth in governmental coffers. For the
colonies this meant the subordination of their economic
interests to those of the mother country.
mestizo A person of mixed white and Indian racial origin.
The term is commonly used in Spanish America.
midden A prehistoric garbage heap, the source of a great deal
of information for the archaeologist.
minifundio A small landholding (about five acres or less); in
particular, a holding that is too small to sustain a family.
mulatto A person of mixed white and black racial heritage.
Neo-Malthusianism New version of the ideas of Malthus (1766-
1834); i.e., a sharply pessimistic warning about the modern
relevance of the proposition that population tends to
increase at a faster rate than the means of food production
and unless checked leads inevitably to misery.
Nordestino A Brazilian from the Northeast region of the
country. See Figure 5.4 for the location and
characterization of the region.
norther Strong winds coming out of the north on the Great
Plains. The term is also used with respect to the cold air
masses that intrude periodically from the North American
continent into the Gulf of Mexico during the winter.
nucleation A grouping around a nucleus, as in rural
village settlement.
out-migration Population movement out of a region, like the
migration of job seekers out of Appalachia into neighboring
cities.
Pampa The grassland plains of Argentina. See Figures 4.3 and
4.6 for location and characterization.
pampero The cold wind that sweeps over the Pampa from the
south during the winter.
peonage An arrangement between landowner and laborer whereby
the laborer must work for the owner until he has repaid
advances on his wages. In effect the indebtedness is usually
larger than the ability to repay, so the worker is
permanently bound.
peones Those who work under peonage, but also menial
agricultural wage earners generally, as on the ranches of
Argentina.
permafrost Ground that remains frozen throughout the year,
except for a shallow surface or "active" layer that melts
and freezes seasonally.
piedmont Plain at the foot of a mountain range.
plantation A large agricultural holding or estate. devoted to
the production of commercial crops such as sugar or coffee,
worked by resident or migrant labor.
Pleistocene A geological epoch, dating approximately from
l,000,000 to 10,000 years before present and characterized by
successive advances and melting of continental ice sheets.
Often considered synonymous with "Ice Age."
Prairie The natural grassland vegetation of much of the Great
Plains before the beginning of cultivation. See Figure
4.8.
Precambrian The earliest era to appear on most geological
time charts. It is considered to extend from about 3
billion to 600 million years before present.
primate city A city that dominates all others within a given
country. It is a great deal larger than the second-ranking
city, holds the most advanced opportunities in the country,
and is in every sense central. Mexico City and Buenos
Aires are good examples.
puna Sparse grassland vegetation in the drier portions of the
Andes, found above about 12,000 feet of elevation, which is
above the tree line.
Quaternary The latest major period in geological history. It
includes everything from the beginning of the Pleistocene
epoch (1,000,000 years before present) to the present.
rain forest A type of lowland vegetation associated with wet
tropical climatic conditions, as in Amazonia. It is
commonly referred to as selva in Latin America.
rain shadow A location in the lee of a mountain range, with
respect to moisture-bearing air masses -- as on the eastern
side of the northern Rockies and the southern Andes.
rancho A Spanish term for a private property, usually smaller
and less imposing than the colonial hacienda, devoted mainly
to cattle ranching. It is an elastic word, however, and can
be used as a synonym for "farm," a designation for an
isolated farmstead, and in other ways.
rationalists Adherents to the point of view that reason and
experience are most important in the solution of any
problem.
Reconquista The reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula for
Christianity, from the Moors. It was complete just before
the Spanish conquests in the New World began.
seigneurie (seigneur) A landed estate in lower Canada (i.e.,
what is now Quebec), essentially feudal in nature. It was
abolished in the mid-nineteenth century. The feudal lord in
this context was known as the seigneur.
selva The forest of the wet tropical lowlands. The word is
often used as a synonym for "rain forest."
sertanejo Stereotype of the man who lives in the
Brazilian sertao. For location of this region see Figure
5.4.
sertao The "backlands" of the Brazilian Northeast; a region
of scarce, unreliable rainfall, thorny scrub forest
vegetation, cattle ranching, and generally difficult living
conditions for the majority of the rural population.
sodbuster Derisive term for a farmer, especially one breaking
new ground, used by the cattlemen of the early North
American West.
stratigraphy A sequence of layers or "horizons" such as would
show up on the walls of a pit dug into a long-occupied
prehistoric settlement site. Each layer usually has
significance for the understanding of cultural phasing.
thermokarst Uneven settling of permanently frozen ground when
as a result of disturbance by heavy-tracked vehicles or
other causes, the ice in the ground melts and the moisture
drains away.
topographic relief Altitudinal variations on the earth's
surface, shown on maps by shading or the use of contour
lines.
transhumance Seasonal transfer of livestock from one grazing
area to another.
tundra A vegetation type that sets in poleward of the limit
of forest, consisting largely of a low, discontinuous cover
of mosses, lichens, and sedges. The word is often used as a
general regional designation for the area beyond the trees.
xerophytic Adapted to life with a limited water supply.
Xerophytic plants have various mechanisms to limit
transpiration and to store water.
zona da mata Zone of commercial agriculture and fairly dense
settlement along the coast of Brazil's Northeast. See Figure
5.4 for location.
zonation See altitudinal zonation and concentric zonation.
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